References

On this page are listed some of the more useful references available to the interested reader. Many more references were used to create the Norse history pages in this document. However, I've tried to list materials here that are useful for a general reader, rather than for a specialist. I've also tried to avoid listing materials which, although commonly quoted, fall short in scholarship or readability, in my opinion.

The books are listed by topic:

• History and General Coverage
• Military and Nautical History
• Society and Culture
• Language and Literature
• Religion and Mythology
• Books for Younger Readers

In addition, we are pleased to make available a one-page reading list for students and teachers.

History and General Coverage

There are a small number of readily available books that provide general coverage of the Viking era. Any one of these books would provide a casual reader with a good overview.

• Roesdahl, Else: The Vikings. 3rd edition. Penguin, 2016. Roesdahl's book is probably the most approachable volume on the Norse era. It has a complete and readable summary of Norse history, culture, daily life, and religion.
• Graham-Campbell, James, et al: Cultural Atlas of the Viking World. Facts on File, 1994. This is a large format book, filled with illustrations and covering a wide range of topics with well written prose.
• Haywood, John: The Penguin Historical Atlas of the Vikings. Penguin, 1995. Another nice summary of Norse history and society, well illustrated with maps, drawings, and photos. In addition, it's also an inexpensive volume.
• Sawyer, Peter, ed. The Oxford Illustrated History of the Vikings. Oxford University Press, 1997. A group of renowned experts have put together this volume. Perhaps not as well illustrated as the title might imply, and perhaps more dry in the history chapters than some, it nonetheless presents a summary of the latest available information, and provides interesting interpretations and viewpoints differing from those in other sources.

These general references, while still recommended, are harder to find, or less general in their coverage, or aimed more at specialists.

• Pulsiano, Phillip, ed.: Medieval Scandinavia: An Encyclopedia. Garland Publishing, Inc. 1993. This is the definitive, authoritative source on the region, with plenty of good, well-referenced information on the Norse era. Out of print.
• McTurk, Rory, ed.: A Companion to Old Norse-Icelandic Literature and Culture. Blackwell Publishing, 2005. This massive reference, covering literature and culture, is highly recommended. It many ways, it is the modern, updated replacement for Pulsiano.
• Byock, Jesse: Viking Age Iceland. Penguin, 2001. Byock presents a wealth of information about Iceland's history and society, from settlement to the end of the free state.
• Foote, P.G. et al: The Viking Achievement. Sidgwick & Jackson, 1970. An older, but one of the better volumes on the Norse era. Fascinating information and discussion appear here that is not repeated in other references. Out of print.
• Almgren, Bertil et al: The Viking. Crescent Books, 1975. This large format volume, while very dated, still makes an worthwhile introduction to the Norse era. While not very deep in some areas, the text covers a very broad range of topics. The best part, though, is the delightful line illustrations by Åke Gustavsson, some of which bear close examination in order to find all the hidden jokes and surprises. The illustrations also show the construction of many artifacts of Norse society in sufficient detail to reconstruct the items. Out of print.
• Page, R.I.: Chronicles of the Vikings. University of Toronto Press, 1995. The author has compiled texts by the Norse people and their contemporaries to produce a volume providing fresh insight on the Norse society. In addition to his keen (and witty) comments, Page provides his own translations of the Norse materials, which, in many cases, puts them in a new light.
• Roesdahl, Else, et al, ed.: From Viking to Crusader: The Scandinavians and Europe 800-1200. Rizzoli, 1992. A remarkable collection of images, text, and discussion of archaeological finds from across Norse lands and throughout the Norse era. The book is the catalog for a Viking exhibition that toured Europe in the early 1990's. Out of print.
• Jón Jóhannesson, Íslendinga Saga (A History of the Old Icelandic Commonwealth), Haraldur Bessaon, tr. University of Manitoba Press, 1974. Like The Viking Achievement listed above, this book is dated, but it provides information and explanations not found in other books.

Military and Nautical History

• Neersø, Niels: A Viking Ship. Breakwater, 1986. This book describes the construction of the Roar Ege, a modern reconstruction of a Skuldelev knörr.
• Crumlin-Pedersen: Viking Age Ships and Shipbuilding in Hedeby/Haithabu and Schleswig. Schleswig and Roskilde, 1997. The author, who is perhaps one of the most knowledgeable scholars of Norse era ship building, summarizes what is known, based on ship finds in Hedeby and Schleswig.
• McGrail, Ancient Boats in Northwest Europe. Longman, 1987. Subtitled The archaeology of water transport to AD1500, the author summarizes what is known about boat building in Europe over a range or periods, including the Norse era.
• Peirce, Ian G., et al.: Swords of the Viking Age. Boydell, 2002. A worthy successor to Oakeshott's volume (below), focusing solely on Viking age weapons.
• Oakeshott, Ewart: Records of the Medieval Sword. Boydell, 1991. A summary, with photos, sketches, and commentary on a variety of examples of swords from the Viking period, as well as from other parts of the medieval era. Also worthy of note is Oakeshott's earlier text, The Archaeology of Weapons, available in a very inexpensive edition from Dover Publications.
• Short, William R.: Viking Weapons and Combat Techniques. Westholme Publishing, 2009. An introduction to the weapons of the Vikings and speculation on how they were used. Somewhat out of date, since some of the ideas in the book no longer represent our current thinking about how Vikings fought and used their weapons.

Society and Culture

• Sigurður Nordal, Icelandic Culture, Vilhjálmur T. Bjarnar, tr. Cornell University Library, 1990. Sigurður Nordal, scholar, author, diplomat, and the dean of Icelandic culture, illuminates the Icelandic literature from a different angle than other texts. This is a fascinating and eye-opening volume.
• Dennis, Andrew, et al, tr.: Laws of Early Iceland: Grágás. University of Manitoba Press, volume 1: 1980; volume 2: 2000. This set is the first English translation of the entire text of Grágás  and is an invaluable reference for students of Icelandic culture and law. It provides fascinating insight into the society of the time. In addition, the translation contains a helpful reference section in the form of an annotated glossary.
• Jochens, Jenny: Women in Old Norse Society. Cornell University Press, 1995. An indispensable summary of old Norse society and the role of women in that society.
• Wolf, Kirsten: Daily Life of The Vikings, Greenwood Press, 2004. A nice summary of life, culture, and material culture of the Viking people.
• Short, William R.: Icelanders in the Viking Age: The People of the Sagas. McFarland & Company, 2010. The book is a companion to the sagas, introducing modern readers to the people of the sagas, and their history, culture and society.
• Glæsel, Nille: Viking Drakter, Dress, Clothing, Nille Glæsel, 2010. An excellent reference for someone wanting to make their own Viking-era clothing. The book includes detailed instructions, full-sized patterns, and clear instructions for making a variety of clothing for men, women, and children. In the debit column, the book is costly, with some awkward English translations and editing oversights.

Language and Literature

Literature translations

• Viðar Hreinsson, ed.: The Complete Sagas of Icelanders. Leifur Eiriksson Publishing, 1997. This five volume set is a monumental work: a new English translation of the entire set of Icelandic family sagas. But in addition to the sagas, it has several articles of note, on Icelandic history, Norse ships, Icelandic farming practices, Icelandic law, and other topics that make it a valuable general reference. Unless otherwise indicated, quotes from the Icelandic family sagas used in the articles on this site come from this translation.
• Örnólfur Thorsson, ed.: The Sagas of the Icelanders, A Selection. Viking, 2000. The magnificent translation described above is now being reprinted in a series of more affordable volumes. This is the first volume of the series.
• Faulkes, Anthony, tr.: Sturluson, Snorri: Edda. Everyman, 1987. The standard English translation of Snorri's texts.
• Larrington, Carolyne, tr.: Poetic Edda. Oxford University Press, 1996. This is a new English translation of the Elder Edda. There are three readily available English translations. Each has its felicities. Each has its problems. Of the three, I like this one the best.
• Terry, Patricia, tr.: Poems of the Elder Edda. University of Pennsylvania Press, 1992. A translation that's in between the more literal translation of Larrington, and the verse version of Hollander.
• Hollander, Lee M., tr.: The Poetic Edda. University of Texas Press, 1962. He tries to maintain the rhythm of the original Norse poetry in his English translation. That's nice, since it gives a flavor of the meter of the original, but it makes the English translation difficult to follow.
• Dronke, Ursula, tr.: The Poetic Edda. Clarendon Press, Volume 1: 1969; Volume 2; 1997; Volume 3; 2011. An edition, translation, and discussion. The model to which all others must be compared. Sadly, I do not know what plans might be in place for the final volume of the set, since the author recently passed away.
• Hollander, Lee M., tr.: Snorri Sturluson's Heimskringla. University of Texas Press, 1964. The standard translation of Snorri's monumental history of Norway.

Literature references

• Jónas Kristjánsson: Eddas and Sagas. Hið íslenska bókmenntafélag, 3^rd edition, 1997. This book is the best general introduction to medieval Icelandic literature of which I am aware. It's clearly written, nicely translated, and covers the topic in just the right depth for a general audience. Its only disadvantage is that it was written for Icelanders, so it presupposes some knowledge of Icelandic history and culture.
• Vésteinn Ólason: Dialogues with the Viking Age. Heimskringla, 1998. Another excellent general introduction to the saga literature.
• McTurk, Rory, ed.: A Companion to Old Norse-Icelandic Literature and Culture. Blackwell Publishing, 2005. A more advanced reference text with articles by leading scholars in the field.
• Turville-Petre, G.: Origins of Icelandic Literature. Clarendon Press, 2^nd edition, 1975. This is the classic text summarizing the history of the Icelandic literary genres.
• Clover, Carol: The Medieval Saga. Cornell University Press, 1982. A fascinating discussion of the structure of sagas.
• Barnes, Michael P.; Runes a Handbook. Bodell Press, 2012. The best single volume introduction to runes that I have seen. The discussion covers runic material from well before to well after the Viking age, and from Viking lands and many others.  The text is well-grounded in facts, with conjecture clearly identified. A model for its kind.

Language references

• Barnes, Michael: A New Introduction to Old Norse, Viking Society for Northern Research, 1999, 2001. This three volume set has replaced Gordon as the definitive text for English speakers seeking to learn old Norse.
• Gordon, E.V.: An Introduction to Old Norse. Oxford University Press, 2^nd edition, 1956. This text, first published in 1927, has been the primary text for students of old Norse. The illustrations are by J.R.R. Tolkien, of Lord of the Rings fame (who was a scholar of old Norse literature). Gordon's introductory remarks contain a concise summary of Norse history, culture, literature, poetry, manuscripts, and runes. The book does not provide any lessons in the Norse language per se. Instead Gordon provides a dictionary, a grammar, copious notes, and a set of readings in old Norse.

Religion and Mythology

The primary sources are short enough that one should go to them early in one's study. (In translation, I recommend Larrington's Poetic Edda and Faulkes' Snorra edda, cited above.) However, since the primary sources can be confusing, incomplete, and conflicting, a casual reader might want to begin with one of the summaries.

• Crossley-Holland, Kevin: The Norse Myths. Pantheon, 1980. The author retells (and embellishes) the Norse stories in modern English prose. This is a good place for a casual reader to get an overview of the Norse mythology and a flavor of the Norse stories.
• Page, R.I.: Norse Myths. University of Texas Press, 1990. Instead of reading my dull and tedious summaries of the Norse myths in this web document, one should read Page's delightful, pithy, and witty summaries in this book.
• Lindow, John: Norse Mythology. Oxford University Press, 2001. An encyclopedic work with articles (and thorough references) on a wide range of topics related to Norse mythology.
• Simek, Rudolf: Dictionary of Northern Mythology. D. S. Brewer, 1993. A more deep and scholarly encyclopedic work on the Norse myths, with extensive lists of sources for each article.
• Turville-Petre, E.O.G.: Myth and Religion of the North - The Religion of Ancient Scandinavia. Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1964. This scholarly study of the Norse religion remains the standard against which other texts are compared. By using literature from the period, along with other contemporary reports, modern studies of other Indo-European religions, and archaeological evidence, the author reconstructs much of what is known about the Norse pagan religion. In addition, the author describes the history of Norse religious beliefs and suggests how those beliefs may have changed during the Norse era.
• Jón Hnefill Aðalsteinsson: A Piece of Horse Liver: Myth, Ritual, and Folklore in Old Icelandic Sources, Terry Gunnell and Joan Turville-Petre, tr. Háskólaútgáfan Félagsvísindastofnun, 1998. This collection of articles and presentations draws out some fascinating insights into the old Norse religion from a variety of historic material. 

Books for Younger Readers

This first group includes books that are readily available. Suggested age and grade levels are approximate.

• Manning, Mick et al: What a Viking!. R&S Books, 2000. A picture book for young readers (ages 4-8) which, in telling the life story of Björn, covers a wide range of Viking age topics. Captions to the Illustrations provide additional information, as well as the gross-out details that kids love.
• Margeson, Susan M.: Viking. Alfred A. Knopf, 1994. One of the Eyewitness series, this book is heavy on detailed photographs, but light on explanatory material. It provides a good introduction to Viking age topics. Ages 9-12.
• Crossley-Holland, Kevin: Viking! Myths of Gods and Monsters. Orion Children's Books, 2002. A retelling of the Norse myths based on material from the author's previous book (above) modified to make it suitable for intermediate and young adult readers.

These books are highly recommended but are more difficult to obtain.

• Civardi, Anne, et al: Viking Raiders. Usborne Publishing, 1997. Part of the Time Traveler series. A well-illustrated general introduction for ages 7-12.
• Pearson, Anne: The Vikings. Viking, 1993. Part of the See Through History series. Another well-illustrated general introduction for older readers, ages 12-16.
• Claire, John D.: The Vikings. Gulliver Books, 1992. Part of the Living History series. My favorite of the general introduction books for children. Ages 12-16.

Lastly, I would be remiss if I didn't mention the best books of all for children interested in the old Norse stories: the children's editions published for Icelandic children. There are (to my knowledge) four in print: Jüri Arrak, et al: Sagan af Gretti Sterka, Mál og menning, 1995; Brynhildur Þórarínsdóttír et al: Njála. Mál og menning, 2002; Brynhildur Þórarínsdóttír et al: Egla. Mál og menning, 2004; Brynhildur Þórarínsdóttír et al: Laxdæla. Mál og menning, 2006. With the help of an adult who either knows the stories or who can translate them, English speaking kids finds these picture books fascinating.

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